Table 2 Risk of bias
| Â | Baillot et al. (2022) | Bang et al. (2020) | Blodgett et al. (2023) | Brown et al. (2021) MHAPA | Brown et al., (2021) PM | Brown et al., (2021) FIBN | Brown et al. (2021) JoPA | Brown et al., (2021) E&B | Brown et al. (2022) JoAD | Brown et al. (2022) MHaPH | Bu et al., (2021) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Was the research question or objective in this paper clearly stated? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
2. Was the study population clearly specified and defined? | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
3. Was the participation rate of eligible persons at least 50%? | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes |
4. Were all the subjects selected or recruited from the same or similar populations (including the same time period)? Were inclusion and exclusion criteria for being in the study prespecified and applied uniformly to all participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
5. Was a sample size justification, power description, or variance and effect estimates provided? | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
6. For the analyses in this paper, were the exposure(s) of interest measured prior to the outcome(s) being measured? | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No |
7. Was the timeframe sufficient so that one could reasonably expect to see an association between exposure and outcome if it existed? | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No |
8. For exposures that can vary in amount or level, did the study examine different levels of the exposure as related to the outcome (e.g., categories of exposure, or exposure measured as continuous variable)? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | No |
9. Were the exposure measures (independent variables) clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
10. Was the exposure(s) assessed more than once over time? | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
11. Were the outcome measures (dependent variables) clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
12. Were the outcome assessors blinded to the exposure status of participants? | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other |
13. Was loss to follow-up after baseline 20% or less? | Other | Other | Other | Other | No | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other |
14. Were key potential confounding variables measured and adjusted statistically for their impact on the relationship between exposure(s) and outcome(s)? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Totals | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 9 | 6 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
|  | Burns et al., (2020) | Cabanas-Sánchez et al., (2021) | Cao et al., (2020) | Carson et al., (2019) | Chao et al. (2022) | Chong et al., (2021) | Christia n et al., (2022) | Colley et al., (2018) | Curtis et al., (2020) | Curtis et al., (2023) | del Pozo Cruz et al., | Dumid et al., (2022) | Duncan et al. (2022) | Fairclough et al., (2021) | Fairclough et al., (2023) | Faria et al. (2022) | Feng et al., (2022) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Was the research question or objective in this paper clearly stated? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
2. Was the study population clearly specified and defined? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
3. Was the participation rate of eligible persons at least 50%? | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | Other | Yes | Other | Other | No | Other | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
4. Were all the subjects selected or recruited from the same or similar populations (including the same time period)? Were inclusion and exclusion criteria for being in the study prespecified and applied uniformly to all participants? | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
5. Was a sample size justification, power description, or variance and effect estimates provided? | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes |
6. For the analyses in this paper, were the exposure(s) of interest measured prior to the outcome(s) being measured? | No | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | Other | No | No | No | No |
7. Was the timeframe sufficient so that one could reasonably expect to see an association between exposure and outcome if it existed? | No | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No |
8. For exposures that can vary in amount or level, did the study examine different levels of the exposure as related to the outcome (e.g., categories of exposure, or exposure measured as continuous variable)? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
9. Were the exposure measures (independent variables) clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
10. Was the exposure(s) assessed more than once over time? | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
11. Were the outcome measures (dependent variables) clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
12. Were the outcome assessors blinded to the exposure status of participants? | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other |
13. Was loss to follow-up after baseline 20% or less? | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | No | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other |
14. Were key potential confounding variables measured and adjusted statistically for their impact on the relationship between exposure(s) and outcome(s)? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Totals | 7 | 9 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 9 | 8 | 7 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 |
| Â | Fung et al. (2022) | Garcia- Hermoso et al. | Gilchrist et al., (2021) | Hajo et al., (2020) | Hinkley et al., (2020) | Hofman et al., (2022) | Hou et al., (2023) | Janssen et al., (2017) | Kandola et al., (2021) | Kitano et al., (2020) | Kuzik et al., (2020) | Kuzik et al., (2022) | Larisch et al., (2020) | Lee et al., (2018) | Le et al., (2021) | Liang et al., (2021) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Was the research question or objective in this paper clearly stated? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
2. Was the study population clearly specified and defined? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
3. Was the participation rate of eligible persons at least 50%? | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Other | Yes | No | Yes | Other | Other | No | Yes | Other | Yes |
4. Were all the subjects selected or recruited from the same or similar populations (including the same time period)? Were inclusion and exclusion criteria for being in the study prespecified and applied uniformly to all participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes |
5. Was a sample size justification, power description, or variance and effect estimates provided? | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
6. For the analyses in this paper, were the exposure(s) of interest measured prior to the outcome(s) being measured? | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
7. Was the timeframe sufficient so that one could reasonably expect to see an association between exposure and outcome if it existed? | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | No | no | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
8. For exposures that can vary in amount or level, did the study examine different levels of the exposure as related to the outcome (e.g., categories of exposure, or exposure measured as continuous variable)? | Yes | Other | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
9. Were the exposure measures (independent variables) clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
10. Was the exposure(s) assessed more than once over time? | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
11. Were the outcome measures (dependent variables) clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
12. Were the outcome assessors blinded to the exposure status of participants? | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other |
13. Was loss to follow-up after baseline 20% or less? | Yes | No | Other | Other | No | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Yes | Other |
14. Were key potential confounding variables measured and adjusted statistically for their impact on the relationship between exposure(s) and outcome(s)? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Totals | 12 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 10 | 8 | 7 | 8 | 10 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 7 | 8 |
|  | Liang et al. (2023) | Li et al., (2022) | Liu et al., (2022) | López-Gil et al., (2022) | Luo et al., (2022) | Luo et al., (2023) | Lu et al., (2021) | McNeill et al., (2020) | Meyer et al., (2020) | Ohta et al., (2023) | Peralta et al., (2022) | Perez et al., (2022) | Porter et al., (2023) | Sampasa- Kanyinga et al., (2020) | Sampasa- Kanyinga et al., (2021) | Sampasa- Kanyinga et al., (2021) PLoS |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Was the research question or objective in this paper clearly stated? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
2. Was the study population clearly specified and defined? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
3. Was the participation rate of eligible persons at least 50%? | Yes | Yes | Other | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
4. Were all the subjects selected or recruited from the same or similar populations (including the same time period)? Were inclusion and exclusion criteria for being in the study prespecified and applied uniformly to all participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
5. Was a sample size justification, power description, or variance and effect estimates provided? | No | No | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
6. For the analyses in this paper, were the exposure(s) of interest measured prior to the outcome(s) being measured? | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes |
7. Was the timeframe sufficient so that one could reasonably expect to see an association between exposure and outcome if it existed? | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes |
8. For exposures that can vary in amount or level, did the study examine different levels of the exposure as related to the outcome (e.g., categories of exposure, or exposure measured as continuous variable)? | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
9. Were the exposure measures (independent variables) clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
10. Was the exposure(s) assessed more than once over time? | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
11. Were the outcome measures (dependent variables) clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
12. Were the outcome assessors blinded to the exposure status of participants? | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other |
13. Was loss to follow-up after baseline 20% or less? | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | No | Yes | Other | No | Other | Other | Other | Other | No |
14. Were key potential confounding variables measured and adjusted statistically for their impact on the relationship between exposure(s) and outcome(s)? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Totals | 8 | 8 | 6 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 7 | 10 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 10 |
| Â | Sampasa- Kanyinga et al., (2021) JoAH | Sampasa- Kanyinga et al., (2022) | Sampasa- Kanyinga et al., (2022) | St. Laurent et al., (2023) | Taylor et al., (2021) | Taylor et al., (2023) | Vanderlined et al., (2023) | Wang et al., (2022) | Zhang et al., (2022) | Zhang et al., (2023) | Zhu et al., (2019) | Zhu et al., (2023) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Was the research question or objective in this paper clearly stated? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
2. Was the study population clearly specified and defined? | Yes | Yes | Yes | yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
3. Was the participation rate of eligible persons at least 50%? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Other | No | No | Other | No | Yes | Other | No | Yes |
4. Were all the subjects selected or recruited from the same or similar populations (including the same time period)? Were inclusion and exclusion criteria for being in the study prespecified and applied uniformly to all participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
5. Was a sample size justification, power description, or variance and effect estimates provided? | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
6. For the analyses in this paper, were the exposure(s) of interest measured prior to the outcome(s) being measured? | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | No | No |
7. Was the timeframe sufficient so that one could reasonably expect to see an association between exposure and outcome if it existed? | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | No | No |
8. For exposures that can vary in amount or level, did the study examine different levels of the exposure as related to the outcome (e.g., categories of exposure, or exposure measured as continuous variable)? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
9. Were the exposure measures (independent variables) clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
10. Was the exposure(s) assessed more than once over time? | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No |
11. Were the outcome measures (dependent variables) clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants? | Yes | Yes | Yes | yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
12. Were the outcome assessors blinded to the exposure status of participants? | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Yes | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other | Other |
13. Was loss to follow-up after baseline 20% or less? | Other | Other | Other | Other | No | Yes | Other | Other | Other | No | Other | Other |
14. Were key potential confounding variables measured and adjusted statistically for their impact on the relationship between exposure(s) and outcome(s)? | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Totals | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 9 | 11 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 7 | 8 |